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Outpatient Management of Depression
1 - What is Depression? |
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Major depression is one of the most prevalent, serious illnesses
in the United States. It affects millions of people of all
ages and walks of life. Although this disorder can be devastating,
it is now more treatable than ever. There are now twenty-two
different antidepressants belonging to one of eight pharmacologically
distinct classes. Thus, major depression is to psychiatry
as hypertension is to general medicine in that the clinician
has a wide array of mechanistically different medications
to select from when treating patients suffering from this
disorder.
Since depression is a common condition that leads many patients
to seek care from the primary-care practitioner, these clinicians
are in the frontline of the battle against this disorder.61,98,121
Over one-half of all patients with major depression are treated
in the primary-care setting. Unfortunately, many cases go
unrecognized, and those that are identified are frequently
inadequately treated.241
There are several myths that contribute to this problem.
One is the mistaken belief that major depression and other
psychiatric disorders are trivial, will go away on their own,
or are the result of character weakness. Another is that the
treatment of these conditions is somehow mysterious such that
primary-care practitioners cannot understand or treat such
patients. This book will dispel these myths.
The same principles and approaches that
apply to hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and other medical
conditions also apply to psychiatric illnesses. Primary-care
practitioners will find that the approach they use in their
general-medicine practice will also apply to psychiatric illnesses.
While the focus of this book is major depression, the principles
discussed here are universally applicable to all psychiatric
illnesses.
FIGURE 1.1 — Diagnostic
Criteria Pyramid |
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TABLE 1.1
— Critical Variables in Diagnosis |
- Onset (type and age
- Signs/symptoms
- Premorbid personality
- Family history
- Natural course
- Response to treatment
- Laboratory data
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All diagnoses in medicine fit into one of the categories
shown in Figure 1.1, arranged hierarchically
from most (etiologic) to least (symptomatic) sophisticated.
Critical variables in diagnosis are listed in Table
1.1.
The fundamental point in diagnosing and
understanding major depression is that it is a syndrome. It
is not just low mood, but rather a cluster of signs and symptoms
termed a depressive episode and consisting of:
- Change in mood:
- Usually "depressed," "blue," or "sad"
- Sometimes irritable or anxious
(Of note, while the syndrome takes it name from the mood
symptom, the two are not synonymous. Not everyone who is
"blue" has major depression, nor is "depressed
mood" necessarily the most prominent symptom for every
patient with major depression.)
- Change in sleep patterns
- Change in appetite
- Change in weight
- Change in activity levels
- A sense of fatigue
- Decreased motivation
- Decreased interest
- Decreased sex drive
- Decreased concentration and attention.
A patient suffering from a major depressive episode will
have five or more of these signs and symptoms every day for
weeks to months, and even years, if not effectively treated.
Diagnostic criteria for a major depressive episode as listed
in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual version IV (DSM-IV)
of the American Psychiatric Association are shown in Table
1.2.
In classic or melancholic major depression, there is a decrease
in:
- Sleep
- Appetite
- Weight
- Activity levels.
TABLE 1.2 — DSM-IV Diagnostic
Criteria for a Major Depressive Episode |
- Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been
present during the same 2-week period and represent
a change from previous functioning; at least one of
the symptoms is either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss
of interest or pleasure (Note: Do not include
symptoms that are clearly due to a general medical
condition, or mood-incongruent delusions or hallucinations):
– Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day,
as indicated by either subjective report (eg, feels
sad or empty) or observation made by others (eg, appears
tearful). Note: In children and adolescents,
can be irritable mood
– Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all,
or almost all, activities most of the day, nearly
every day (as indicated by either subjective account
or observation made by others)
– Significant weight loss when not dieting or weight
gain (eg, a change of more than 5% of body weight
in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly
every day. Note: In children, consider failure to
make expected weight gains
– Insomnia or hypersomnia nearly every day
– Psychomotor agitation or retardation nearly
every day (observable by others, not merely subjective
feelings of restlessness or being slowed down)
– Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
– Feelings of worthlessness or excessive or
inappropriate guilt (which may be delusional) nearly
every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about
being sick)
– Diminished ability to think or concentrate; indecisiveness,
nearly every day (either by subjective account or
as observed by others)
– Recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying),
recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan,
or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing
suicide
- The symptoms do not meet criteria for a mixed episode
- The symptoms cause clinically significant distress
or impairment in social, occupational, or other important
areas of functioning
- The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological
effects of a substance (eg, a drug of abuse, a medication)
or a general medical condition (eg, hypothyroidism)
- The symptoms are not better accounted for by bereavement,
ie, after the loss of a loved one; the symptoms persist
for longer than 2 months or are characterized by marked
functional impairment, morbid preoccupation with worthlessness,
suicidal ideation, psychotic symptoms, or psychomotor
retardation
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Adapted from: DSM-IV: Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed.
Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1994. |
However, there is also an "atypical" or "reversed
vegetative symptom" syndrome in which these symptoms
are increased (Table 1.3):
- Hypersomnolence
- Hyperphagia
- Weight gain
- Lethargy
- Agitation.
This atypical form has an earlier age of
onset (late teens to late twenties) compared to the melancholic
form (late thirties to late forties). The atypical form also
has a unique family pattern: female relatives with atypical
major depression and male relatives with alcoholism. In contrast,
the family pattern in the melancholic form tends to be more
one of pure major depression. These differences suggest that
these are different forms of clinical depression. There are
also some data to suggest a differential response to different
classes of antidepressants in patients with melancholic versus
atypical clinical depression (Chapter
8).
The diagnosis of major depression can be compared to the
diagnosis of migraine. A patient presents with a symptom,
such as low mood in the case of major depression or headache
in the case of migraine. The clinician then screens the patient
for the syndrome. A pathophysiological cause, perhaps hypothyroidism
in the case of a depressive syndrome or increased intracranial
pressure in the case of migrainous-like headache, is checked.
The clinician then should go on to explore possible etiological
causes.
Major depression is currently at the syndromic
level of understanding, but research is expanding our knowledge
at the levels of pathophysiology and etiology, just as with
any medical condition. The clinician, when faced with a patient
who may have a depressive syndrome, must do differential diagnosis
to confirm the diagnosis or find another explanation.
The most common known etiologies of a depressive episode
include:
- Substance abuse and/or dependence involving:
- Sedatives, especially alcohol
- Stimulants, especially cocaine
- Other drug therapy, such as antihypertensives, particularly
those that antagonize central biogenic amine mechanisms
(ie, norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine)
- Occult malignancies:
- Should be thoroughly considered when:
- Patient is in high-risk group (eg, elderly)
- Weight loss is out of proportion to other depressive
symptoms
- The depressive episode remains refractory despite adequate
trials of several classes of antidepressants and/or electroconvulsive
therapy (ECT)
- A classic scenario is carcinoma of the head or the pancreas.
It is necessary to consider these common medical causes of
a depressive episode because they require different treatments.
The bottom line is that clinical or major depression is a
syndromic diagnosis made after excluding other medical conditions.
Once the diagnosis has been made, the
clinician should endeavor to determine whether the patient
has manic-depressive (also called bipolar) disorder or unipolar
major depression. In bipolar illness, the patient is susceptible
to hypomanic or manic episodes (Table 1.3)
as well as depressive episodes, while in the latter the patient
only has depressive episodes. The unipolar condition is considerably
more common-about 10 times more prevalent-than the bipolar
form. Nonetheless, some patients with manic-depressive illness
will present for the first time with a depressive episode
rather than a manic episode. It is important to make this
distinction because bipolar patients are at risk for the development
of a manic episode during treatment of their depressive episode
(Chapter 11). If the clinician
is alert to this possibility, steps can be taken (eg, concomitant
treatment with lithium and increased vigilance) to
decrease the risk associated with a switch into mania.
TABLE 1.3 — Signs
and Symptoms of Different Types of Affective Episodes |
Sign/Symptom |
Melancholia |
Atypical or Nonclassic
Depression |
Hypomania |
Mood |
Depressed
Anxious
Irritable
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Irritable
Anxious
Depressed |
Irritable Euphoric |
Affect |
Reactivity |
Reactivity
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Reactivity |
Energy (subjective) |
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Activity (objective) |
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Sleep |
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Appetite |
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Sex drive |
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Concentration/ attention |
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Interest |
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The question is how to determine whether the patient has
a bipolar rather than a unipolar disorder? That can be more
difficult than it may first appear. The problem is not with
mania since the psychosis and/or level of functional impairment
due to overt mania is such that even a casual observer can
detect the condition. The problem is with hypomanic episodes.
The symptoms involve the same functions as those found in
major depression (Table 1.3) but differ
in their expression (eg, increased rather than decreased activity)
or are experienced differently (eg, the depressed patient
complains of "not being able to sleep" while the
hypomanic patient reports "not needing to sleep").
Rarely, if ever, do hypomanic patients present complaining
about hypomania (eg, "Gee, Doc, I feel too good.").
Hence, the clinician must inquire about such episodes in all
patients presenting with a first-time episode of major depression.
The family history can also be helpful.
Bipolar disorder has one of the strongest, if not the strongest,
familial patterns of any psychiatric illness. If one or more
of the patient's first- or second-degree family relatives
has bipolar disorder, the clinician should consider the patient
to be at increased risk, and may wish either to treat with
lithium in addition to an antidepressant (Chapter
11) or instruct the patient to contact the clinician if
s/he should begin feeling "too good," "wound
up," or having one of the other symptoms listed in Table
1.3.
In summary, to make a diagnosis of a major depression,
the clinician must first establish that the patient has a
depressive episode and, second, rule out known medical causes
of such episodes.
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